Category Archives: Mitochondrial DNA

Sixteen Unique Trees at FamilyTreeDNA: How and When to Use Each

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I love all the various trees at FamilyTreeDNA – and I’m not referring just to traditional genealogy trees with people, names, and dates. I’m talking about phylogenetic or haplogroup trees – the ones you use to understand your Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, origins – and more. These trees tell you ABOUT your ancestors, those people in the more traditional genealogy tree, and the combination of both is powerful.

This article introduces the various trees available at FamilyTreeDNA, when and where you’ll find them, and what they can do for you.

Haplogroup Trees

Phylogenetic, or haplogroup trees, provide a genetic path from you, or the tester, today, back in time to Y-Line Adam, or Mitochondrial Eve – the first two humans who lived AND have descendants today.

Let’s start by explaining about Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), their inheritance path, and what they mean to you.

Y-DNA

Only men have a Y-chromosome, so only biological males can test their Y-DNA.

Y-Line Adam, Y-DNA haplogroup A-PR2921, lived about 232,000 BCE, or 234,000 years ago.

Is it possible that one day someone will test whose results push that date back somewhat? Yes, of course, as we are always learning, and many testers split branches.

Today, all 711,000+ modern descendants who have tested carry the mutation named A-PR2921 as their oldest SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism), or haplogroup-defining mutation in their Y-DNA. That’s because we all descend from that one man.

If you’re a male, Y-DNA testing tells you about your direct paternal line by matching with other men who have also taken a Y-DNA test, and by revealing valuable information from before the adoption of surnames. There’s no other way to reach that far back in time.

If you’re a female, you can recruit males in your family to test.

The Big Y-700 test provides the deepest-reaching and most refined Y-DNA test available, which is essential for both genealogy and tree-building.

Mitochondrial DNA

All people have mitochondrial DNA, inherited from their mother directly through her matrilineal line – meaning her mother, her mother, her mother, and so forth – directly up your tree through all mothers.

Everyone inherits their mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from their mother, but only females pass it on. Both males and females in the current generation, meaning you, can (and should) test their mitochondrial DNA.

Mitochondrial Eve, mitochondrial DNA haplogroup L, lived about 141,000 BCE, or about 143,000 years ago. All 315,000 testers descend from this one woman.

Like with Y-Line Adam, one day the results of future testers may push this date further back in time. A full sequence mitochondrial DNA test, mtFull, is necessary to test all 16,569 mitochondrial locations.

Test Types

FamilyTreeDNA has been in business for more than 25 years. Technology has advanced dramatically during that time. While they continue to offer new tests and products, they strive to maintain value for their original testers.

Even though some early testers may have joined their ancestors, matching with their test results is still beneficial to us.

Present-day DNA testers can still derive value by matching the earlier, lower-level, lower-resolution tests. Not as much value as if the original tester had taken a higher-level test, but those tests may not have been available at that time.

Matches, surnames, genealogy, locations, and haplogroups provide us with valuable information. The more people who test, the larger the pool becomes, and the better our chances of discovering something that refines our understanding of our ancestors – and identifies who they are.

Before we look at the trees available, let’s take a look at where haplogroups come from. Different level tests assign different levels of haplogroups, based on how much is tested.

Let’s answer two common questions:

  1. Where can you find your haplogroup, and what does it mean?
  2. How can haplogroups be different for people who descend from the same ancestor?

Where Do Haplogroups Come From?

Since the beginning, FamilyTreeDNA has always provided their customers with haplogroup information. Haplogroups are very genealogically useful today, but initially, 25 years ago, they were only able to provide essentially continental-level origin information for your particular line. That too was useful, and helped to identify and eliminate common lineages – just not as useful as today.

Science and testing have both come a long way. Present-day testers still match with people who only tested at a lower level. You never know what you might find at that level – a match to someone who has not taken the current tests, but is still very relevant because they share your ancestor. In fact, they may be the only tester who does.

For Y-DNA testers, you’ll notice several match categories that reflect different testing levels – along with the number of matches at each level. At one time, you could purchase each one of these tests individually, then later upgrade to higher-level tests. Today, only the 37 and 111 marker tests, and the Big Y-700, which scans the entire gold-standard region of the Y chromosome, are available. Higher level tests include the lower-level tests.

Click any image to enlarge

Different types of tests provide either a predicted or a confirmed haplogroup which shows on your match list.

Without getting all sciency on you – the 12-111 marker tests test targeted STRs, or short tandem repeats, which can’t be used for haplogroup assignment and confirmation. They can and are used to compare to other testers for matching because the number of repeats, or stutters, are inherited on the Y chromosome. The Big Y test scans the Y chromosome for SNPs, single nucleotide polymorphisms, which are stable mutations that define haplogroups. I wrote about this in the article, STRs vs SNPs, Multiple DNA Personalities.

Some haplogroups are much further down the tree, or more current, than others. Your most current haplogroup, only available with the Big Y-700 test, is the best because it brings you the closest to current in time, often placing you within family branches. The Big Y-700 scans about 23 million locations on the Y chromosome, revealing both known and unknown mutations, not just a few markers, making it the most refined and relevant test genealogically.

Each higher-level test includes the lower-level tests. You can see what tests your matches have taken by looking beneath their names on your match list. In this case, these Estes men who match my cousin have taken the Family Finder (or uploaded an autosomal transfer), and taken the mtFull test. One match initially took the Big Y-500 but has since upgraded to the Big Y-700, and the other originally tested at the 111 marker level, and has since upgraded as well.

The Big Y-700 includes all lower-level tests, such as the Big Y-500 (now obsolete), the 111, 67, 37, 25, and 12 marker STR tests. You still match with people who only tested at those levels, plus everyone else who ordered a more refined test.

The haplogroup you receive is more or less refined, based on the test level you take.

Y-DNA Test Type Haplogroup Provided Relevance Upgradable
Y-DNA STR 12-111 marker tests (only 37 and 111 are available today – the rest are obsolete) Predicted based on STRs – very reliable at the level predicted Predicted (not confirmed) haplogroup that was generally formed a couple thousand years ago, or earlier Yes, if enough quality DNA remains. Only 37, 111, and the Big Y-700 tests are available today. Recommend the upgrade to Big Y-700.
Individual SNP test (now obsolete) Confirms a predicted haplogroup or tests a single SNP to confirm a closer haplogroup Relevant at the level tested – either positive or negative result was reported Individual SNP tests have now been replaced by Big Y-700, which covers all individual SNPs that were available to test, plus much more.
Big Y-500 test (now obsolete) Confirmed haplogroup within range of that test’s ability, replaced by much more granular Big Y-700 Big Y-700 is more refined and moves the tester towards more current haplogroups, so more genealogically significant Yes, upgrade to Big Y-700 if enough DNA remains, or tester can re-swab
Big Y-700 – scans the entire gold-standard region of the Y chromosome – approximately 23 million base pairs Top-of-the-line SNP-confirmed test, most granular and refined. Scans for known and previously unknown mutations. Extremely accurate. Generally advances the tester into a genealogical timeframe, and often divides testers into multiple lineages descended from a known common ancestor No more advanced test is available.
Family Finder autosomal test or transfer Confirmed to mid-range level if possible. Not all transfer files have Y-DNA or mtDNA SNPs so you get what you get. Useful in autosomal matching for locating people you may be related to you with that surname. Ask the match if they are willing to take a Y-DNA test, if relevant, or sponsor a testing scholarship for them.

Family Finder haplogroups are relatively new at FamilyTreeDNA. Each chip level that FamilyTreeDNA has used for testing over the years, and the chips that other vendors have used, contain different SNPs (or none at all on the Ancestry test) that can be measured for some level of haplogroup. Other vendors generally don’t quality-control for either Y-DNA or mtDNA SNPs because they don’t use them. This is a “you get what you get” freebie.

That said, most Family Finder haplogroups are closer in time, or “better” than the predicted R-M269, the most common haplogroup in Europe, often reported with STR testing.

Not everyone with a transfer kit receives a haplogroup. Due to quality and reliability issues, you cannot see haplogroups on your autosomal match list for those who only have a haplogroup through an autosomal transfer.

Using our male Estes testers as an example, we find the following haplogroup results at the various testing levels:

Haplogroup Haplogroup Formation Date Ancestor or Haplogroup Formation Location Haplogroup Source
R-M269 4450 BCE (6450 years ago) Between Ukraine and Kazakhstan, north of the Black and Caspian Seas Predicted from 12-111 STR marker tests
R-BY487 700 CE (1300 years ago) UK, Scotland/England Family Finder DNA SNP Confirmed
R-BY482 1550 CE Robert Eastye b 1555 Ringwould, Kent, England Big Y-700
R-BY490 1700 CE Silvester Eastye b 1596 Kent, England Big Y-700
R-ZS3700 1750 CE Moses Estes 1711 VA Big Y-700
R-BY154784 1850 CE Joseph Estes b c 1790 VA or TN Big Y-700

All of these are valid and accurate haplogroups – some are just closer in time and much more useful than others. All of these men have R-M269, because it is a parent haplogroup of all of those downstream haplogroups. The Big-Y tested men beginning with R-BY482 don’t share the haplogroups below them, because they don’t have those mutations that are downstream on the tree. However, the men at the bottom with R-BY154784 have all of the SNPs above them.

Note that all haplogroup formation dates are ranges. I’m showing the midpoint here.

When upgrading, if the original tester is deceased, select the highest-level test available, as there may not be enough DNA to run more than one test. When I offer scholarships now, I always just offer the Big Y-700 test to avoid future issues.

If the tester you need is no longer available, consider the possibility that other people, family members perhaps, might be available to test to represent this same line.

Next, let’s look at mitochondrial test levels and haplogroups.

Mitochondrial DNA Test Type Haplogroup Provided Relevance Upgradable
HVR1 & HVR2 tests (no longer available) Predicted based on around 1000 markers – very reliable at the level predicted Predicted haplogroup, not confirmed, generally formed a couple thousand years ago or earlier Yes, if enough quality DNA remains. Only the mtFull test is available today.
mtFull, full sequence test Tests all 16,569 SNP locations in the entire mitochondria. Most granular and refined. Extremely accurate. Often brings tester into genealogical timeframe, especially with the new Mitotree. Divides testers into multiple haplotype lineages, sometimes descended from known common ancestor. No upgrade needed to receive new Mitotree and mtDNA Discover benefits.
Family Finder autosomal test or transfer Coming soon. Will be the same criteria and caveats as Y-DNA SNPs. May be able to find a similar or upstream haplogroup that might point to a common ancestor. Ask autosomal match if they are willing to take a mtFull test, if relevant, or sponsor a scholarship for them.

Ok, now that we understand more about haplogroups, how they are determined, and where yours came from, let’s look at all of the trees at FamilyTreeDNA.

Trees Within Your Y-DNA and Mitochondrial DNA Account

Let’s start with trees found within your personal account, so sign in.

Each tree has a different purpose and unique benefits.

Tree #1 – Your Matches Genealogy Trees

Each of your matches may have provided links to genealogical trees. They may show trees in multiple places too; at MyHeritage, an archived tree at FamilyTreeDNA, and a WikiTree link. I makes notes about their trees in the comments field, and I also keep a spreadsheet to look for commonalities.

Tree #2 – Haplogroups and SNPs for Y-DNA Testers

Next, for Y-DNA testers, click on the Y-DNA Results and Tools.

You’ll see the Haplotree & SNPs tile on the dashboard.

The Haplotree and SNPs link takes you to a phylogenetic tree that defaults to your haplogroup, where you can view:

  • Variants – SNP mutations that define your haplogroup
  • Surnames with this haplogroup – so long as there are multiple public testers
  • Countries – self-reported for earliest known ancestors (EKA)
  • Recommended Projects – haplogroup projects only – others such as surname projects are found in Discover under Suggested Projects

Tree #3 – The Block Tree for Big Y Testers

People who have taken the Big Y-700 test have a separate section that includes tools for the Big-Y test that aren’t relevant for the 12-111 STR marker tests.

Big Y testers will see the Block Tree tile on their dashboard.

The block tree is an alternative way of displaying matches on a phylogenetic tree. While the Discover Time Tree is viewed left to right, this tree is displayed top to bottom, with each mutation being represented by one grey bar on the scale at left. Each mutation corresponds to approximately 100 years, which is a rough average for the frequency of Y-chromosomal mutations.

People with 30 mutations or fewer are shown as matches, with the goal of reaching back about 1500 years.

Each large block shows the mutation for which the haplogroup is named, such as R-BY482, at the top. The mutations, known as variants, shown below that haplogroup name, are found in the results of each person in that haplogroup, but in the future, people without those mutations, or with additional mutations, will form a new branching haplogroup.

The green “Private Variants” at the bottom of the branches display the average number of mutations of people within that group awaiting another tester to have the same mutations, so a new branch can be formed. I view Private Mutations as “haplogroups in waiting.”

Discover

In addition to the haplogroup trees shown in your account at FamilyTreeDNA, there are several additional trees in Discover for both Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA. Discover, updated weekly, is a suite of tools for both Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA that, cumulatively, provides a book about your haplogroup results.

Discover comes in two flavors:

  • The publicly available free version with limited functionality
  • Your private version with expanded functionality available from within your account

You can access Discover, here if you’d like to follow along.

Discover is a publicly available free tool introduced in the fall of 2023 that provides more than a dozen reports, enabling a deeper understanding of all haplogroups.

Just select Y-DNA or mtDNA and enter your haplogroup of choice.

Think of these menu choices, in the sidebar, as chapters in your personal book. Every chapter has something interesting to tell you. Please read them – don’t just scan.

In addition to the free version, if you have taken a Big-Y or mitochondrial DNA full sequence test at FamilyTreeDNA, you’ll have additional information available.

For mitochondrial DNA results, just click on the pink Discover tile.

For Y-DNA results, click on the blue Discover tile.

Within Discover, you’ll find three distinct trees.

Trees #4 and #5 – Y-DNA and Mitochondrial DNA Time Trees

The Time Tree shows your Y-DNA or mitochondrial DNA haplogroup displayed on a timeline, along with:

  • A self-reported ancestral country indicator for every person’s DNA in that haplogroup
  • Haplotype groupings indicating exact matches between everyone in that haplotype.

A haplotype is a grouping of people whose DNA matches exactly, including unstable or hypervariable locations too unreliable to use for haplogroup formation. However, those mutations may be relevant for genealogical matching.

I wrote about haplogroups and haplotypes here and here.

Tree #6 and #7 – Y-DNA and Mitochondrial DNA Class Tree View

The Classic Tree is available for both Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA.

On the Classic Mitotree View, you can display and filter the tree, including haplotypes, in seven ways, as shown in the dropdown “Display Options.”

Tree #8 and #9 – Y-DNA and Mitochondrial DNA Tree Branch Comparison

Have you ever seen two haplogroups and wondered how closely they are related? Compare provides that answer.

Here, I’m comparing my haplogroup to that of a family member. Everyone is related, but how long ago are we related on our matrilineal lines?

Haplogroup J1c2f compared with haplogroup V216a shows that our common ancestor lived a VERY long time ago – about 55,000 years in the past, someplace in the fertile crescent.

For either Y-DNA or mitochondrial DNA, you can compare two haplogroups. This provides specific information about those two branches of the tree, and where they intersect. To view more about the common ancestor, just pop R+10398 into Discover and learn more about when and where that ancestor lived.

Trees #10 and #11 – Match Time Trees

Match Time Trees are one of the most useful Discover features.

In addition to the Time Trees and Classic Trees provided for everyone in Discover, test takers will also have a Match Time Tree that shows all of your matches, organized genetically.

For mtFull testers, your matches are organized by haplotype cluster. People in your haplotype cluster are your exact matches.

I have over 100 full sequence matches, so I’m only showing the first few in this screenshot. In addition to the match’s name, their EKA (earliest known ancestor) is shown, if provided.

On the Y-DNA Match Time Tree, links are provided to genealogical trees of the tester, which could be an archived FamilyTreeDNA tree, a MyHeritage tree, WikiTree, or some combination.

You can actually see your matches’ WikiTree tree on your Match Time Tree by enabling another feature.

Trees #12 and #13 – WikiTree Tree Integration

While you’re still on the Match Time Tree page for either Y-DNA or mitochondrial DNA, click on Display Options, above the Time Tree, and enable WikiTree Connections. Unfortunately, the default for this great feature is “off.”

I’ve enabled “Share Mode” at the top to obfuscate the names of the testers, and I’ve adjusted the vertical spacing so you can see more in my examples. You’ll notice the grey lines with dots inside circles. I think of these as beads or maybe knots on a rope, but they actually represent a line of ancestors.

Each tester with one of those grey dot bars has connected themselves to their ancestors at WikiTree, a public one-world tree. Living people are not shown, hence the dash marks to the immediate left of the tester’s name.

By mousing over any of the dots, aka ancestors, you can view information about this ancestor of this Estes tester at WikiTree. Ancestors appear in genealogical order in their relevant place on the Time Tree. How cool is that!!!

WikiTree, like any tree, public or private, can have errors. Always verify any tree using original source documents.

As far as I’m concerned, the Match Time Tree is one of the very best features of both Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA testing and matching. There are so many options to select from, so take some time to look around.

Your Personal Version of Discover is Best

Y-DNA Discover and mtDNA Discover can both be useful for any level of haplogroup, but the best results are obtained when clicking through from the tester’s FamilyTreeDNA account. Big Y and full sequence mitochondrial DNA customers receive additional information, not available in the free, public version of Discover, including

  • The Match Time Tree
    • Including WikiTree integration
  • Globetrekker (Y-DNA, mtDNA coming eventually)
  • Up to 30 Ancient Connections, as compared to 3 in the free version
  • Up to 30 Notable Connections, as compared to 3 in the free version

Tree #14 – Group Time Trees

I absolutely love Group Time Trees. They are similar to Match Time Trees, but unlike Match Time Trees, are publicly viewable for Group Projects if the volunteer project administrators have enabled this feature for the project.

There are two ways to access Group Time Trees – through publicly accessible Discover or directly through any project.

In Discover, select Group Project in the dropdown.

Then type the name of the surname project you’re seeking. You’ll be presented with a menu if the surname you’ve entered is found in multiple projects, or administrators have listed it as “of interest” in their project.

I clicked on the Estes project.

Viewing the Estes DNA Project, under DNA Results, you can see the various options.

Selecting Y-DNA Results Overview displays the project results by administrator-defined group. The teal groups all descend through Abraham Estes through various sons.

However, by clicking the Group Time Tree instead, you can view all these testers and their results in a Match Time Tree format, arranged genetically.

Clicking on the Group Time Tree link takes you to the Group Time Tree for this project. A menu is displayed at left, based on how the administrator has grouped the project.

I’ve selected several groups that I know descend from the original Estes ancestor from Kent, England. Testers who have joined the Estes project and granted permission for their results to be displayed publicly are automatically grouped genetically, at right, with their surname and EKA (earliest known ancestor), assuming they have entered that information.

Earliest Known Ancestors (EKA)

You’ve probably noticed that earliest known ancestors, along with their locations, are used in many places.

Please enter both your direct paternal (father, father, to father’s line) and direct matrilineal (mother, mother, to mother’s line) earliest known ancestors, along with their locations. I wrote about how to do that in “Earliest Known Ancestors” at FamilyTreeDNA in 3 Easy Steps, here.

Trees #15 and #16 – Public Trees

In addition to trees within testers’ accounts, Discover trees, Group Time Trees, and WikiTree tree integration, FamilyTreeDNA provides two additional public trees.

FamilyTreeDNA made the Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA haplogroup trees freely available years ago, at the bottom of their main company public page – without signing in.

These trees are still actively maintained today and are free for everyone to use.

To find these trees, scroll all the way to the very bottom of the page, in the footer, to the Community section. Yes, I know, it’s a bit like a scavenger hunt!

You can select to view either the Y-DNA or mtDNA tree. I love this tree, because it shows how many SNP-confirmed people have been tested. That number does not include the thousands of academic and public samples that may be utilized to help define haplogroups, and that you’ll sometimes see in your Ancient and Notable Connections.

So, if you receive a new haplogroup, but you don’t see a new match on your list or on the Block Tree, it’s probably because you match a high-quality academic sample.

The trees display from the root, meaning the oldest haplogroup is shown at the top. In the Y-DNA tree, above, haplogroup A-PR2921 is “Y-Adam”.

You can select any haplogroup on the bar across the top, search by country, or select a specific branch name to view.

The tree itself is viewable by country, as shown above, or by variant, meaning the haplogroup-defining mutations, shown below.

Additionally, for the Y-DNA tree, you can choose to display by surname, so long as there are two or more testers with that identically spelled surname who share this haplogroup and who have given permission for public display.

Please note that these people are all SNP-tested and confirmed at the level reported, but they are NOT all Big-Y testers.

This feature alone can be genealogy-changing because they may be surnames associated with your ancestors in records, or they may just be neighbors. Or maybe you thought they were “just neighbors,” but they are actually related.

At one time, customers could order an individual SNP test for R-M269 to confirm their predicted haplogroup. That test is no longer available, but anyone who took that test to confirm R-M269 and never tested or received results (like Family Finder) at a more granular level will be reported at R-M269. Note that 687 is the number of distinct surnames shown, not the total number of testers.

The three “hamburger dots” on the right side provide options for a user-reported Country Report based on the location of their earliest known ancestor, and a Surname Report. The surname report for R-M269 shows a total of 2448 testers who share those 687 surnames.

It’s a Whole Forest

Who knew there were 16 unique trees available at FamilyTreeDNA!

Each tree has a unique purpose and provides information not available elsewhere.

Take a look and see what kind of information is waiting for you – and don’t forget to check back often.

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The New FamilyTreeDNA NGS Family Finder Test

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Recently, in a press release, FamilyTreeDNA announced a new version of their Family Finder autosomal test that increases coverage from about .02% to about 9% of the human genome. Increasing coverage to this level using precision genomics holds great promise for the future.

Everyone who has purchased a Family Finder test since the beginning of March is automatically tested using the new technology – and it doesn’t cost any more than the earlier test.

As shown in this slide presented by Dave Vance, Senior VP and General Manager at FamilyTreeDNA, the new test covers 400 times more DNA locations than the industry-standard microarray chip-based test.

The typical vendor microarray autosomal DNA test covers somewhere between 400,000 and 750,000 locations.

Utilizing this new technology is an investment in the future.

You Don’t Know What You Don’t Know

To quote Dave:

Two numbers I want you to remember.

0.02 is the percent of your whole genome reported by standard autosomal tests today. All of your ancestry estimates, shared segments, and autosomal matches come from that small fraction.

9 is the percent of your genome that our new Family Finder test reports at high quality coverage. Starting right now — that’s over 400 times more data, from the very same test.

And the real point isn’t the number. It’s what that data makes possible. This gives us the foundation to unlock deeper, more meaningful insights — not just today, but for years to come. And when it becomes possible to go even further, I want FamilyTreeDNA to lead the way.

But what does that 9% mean for your genealogy research?

It means fewer unexplained matches, a clearer understanding of how people are related, and more confidence in the conclusions you draw from your autosomal DNA. Moving from connections to explanations, and from data to answers.

And until we can start rolling out those deeper insights, for now you’ll still get the same trusted Family Finder experience you’re used to — but you’ll also have the benefit of data that’s ready to unlock even more as new insights become possible.

In fact, you can watch Dave for yourself, at RootsTech, on the mainstage, here, having the unenviable position of following the Irish-step-dancing Gardiner Brothers. Yea, Dave, I didn’t get that gene either!

What makes NGS sequencing so special?

Sequencing Types

NGS is the abbreviation for Next Generation Sequencing, also called massive parallel sequencing. Rather than using individual probes, NGS is a high-throughput technology that simultaneously sequences millions of DNA fragments while still allowing targeting of specific regions.

Dave wrote about the differences between different types of sequencing, here.

All vendors select or target locations in the human genome that are most relevant for their product set, purpose or goals.

The older microarray sequencing machines have been in use for many years. They use probes to read specific targeted addresses, one by one, identifying which of four nucleotides is present at each location on your two copies of each chromosome.

The four nucleotides, adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) are the building blocks of DNA, and you receive one from each parent at every location on chromosomes 1-22. Chromosome 23, the sex selection chromosome is a little bit different due to X-DNA and Y-DNA, but the locations are still read the same way using NGS technology.

The results of DNA testing are essentially a downloadable output file with the following information for each read:

  • The RSID SNP cluster ID chromosome
  • The chromosome number
  • The position (think street address) on the chromosome
  • The results, which are the abbreviations for the nucleotide found on the first and second strands of your DNA at that location

In autosomal DNA testing, positions on strands cannot inherently be identified as maternal or paternal without additional techniques such as parental comparison or phasing.

This data file is not meant for you to analyze, but for computers to compare to other DNA testers. Needless to say, the power of the data lies in the information it holds, such as ethnicity, haplogroup-identifying mutations, and matching with other testers.

The output files must be compatible with each other, or the vendors must make accommodations for any incompatibility.

Regardless of the sequencing type, currently, all genetic genealogy vendors’ download files use this same pattern.

The difference between the files and file types from each vendor is:

  • The technology used for the test
  • How much DNA is tested
  • How many rows of data are provided in the download file
  • The quality of the results

Sequencing Type Differences

Let’s put this in terms that we all understand.

With microarray sequencing, a utility worker is sent to each address to read the two nucleotides.

With both NGS and whole-genome sequencing, many addresses are read at the same time. Think of a fleet of drones flying over a neighborhood and reading what is written on the rooftops of each house address.

The difference between the type of NGS sequencing utilized by FamilyTreeDNA, and whole-genome sequencing is threefold:

  1. NGS targets specific addresses and neighborhoods in a controlled manner, because we know they are useful and are specifically interested in the data at those locations. In other words, it omits oceans, deserts, and other places that we know aren’t useful for genealogy.
  2. Whole-genome sequencing covers the majority of the genome, even though more than 90% of the genome is identical in all humans. In other words, the fleet of whole-genome sequencing drones flies over everything, including oceans and deserts, reading and storing everything.
  3. The number of times the drones fly over each address.

For example, a low-pass whole-genome test would fly over the entire world (your genome), scanning it once or twice, but there will be cloud cover and weather in some locations. Typically, you want at least two complete reads from each address to compare to ensure a minimum level of quality. The missed areas need to be estimated with tools like imputation to fill in the blanks.

The breadth of DNA covered is known as “coverage”, or “pass coverage”. So, whole-genome testing covers all or most of the genome, including more than 90% that is not genealogically relevant because it’s identical in all humans.

With NGS sequencing, you specify which locations or neighborhoods you want the drones to read, and you instruct them to fly over just those regions, say, 5 or 10 times. Even if there’s weather or another issue, chances are that at least some of those passes will be able to read both nucleotides.

How many times a particular location, or base, is read is known as “read depth” or “sequencing depth”. The greater the depth, the higher the quality and accuracy of the targeted locations, which means less imputation or “fixing” is needed.

Within the industry, confidence to coverage correlation is about 93% confidence of accuracy for both alleles at a given location at a depth of 5X, which rises to about 99% accuracy at a depth of 10X.

Using our examples, whole-genome sequencing covers about 98% of the genome, at a depth specified by the vendor. Low-pass whole-genome testing is typically performed at a depth of 2X, meaning each location is scanned twice.

NGS combines the best aspects of both “drone style” and “targeted” reads, providing the highest accuracy for the areas that are most important for genetic genealogy at an affordable price, while also targeting enough of the human genome to allow for new discoveries that may be important to either population genetics for ethnicity identification, or to identify your own family lineage mutations.

Yes, you can get both high coverage and very deep reads. That’s called medical-grade whole-genome sequencing, where your entire genome is sequenced to a depth of at least 30X, but it’s both expensive and not useful for genealogy. None of the genealogy vendors are prepared to, or need to, process the massive amount of data generated by a medical-grade whole-genome test, so there is no benefit to taking that type of test for genealogical purposes.

Why is NGS Sequencing Important?

FamilyTreeDNA has moved from the 700,000+ SNPs previously read on their microarray chip, to more than 280 million base pairs. So, from about .02% to about 9% of the 3.1 billion base pairs of the human genome.

Technology has improved to the point where NGS sequencing is no more expensive than microarray sequencing and provides substantially more results.

In other words, there’s no reason NOT to implement this technology now. The new Family Finder test is fully compatible with their earlier Family Finder tests, so everything is painless.

Plus, NGS allows FamilyTreeDNA to target specific locations that benefit their customers, such as both Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA SNPs. Of course, you’ll still need to take the Big Y-700 or the full sequence mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) test for full results and matching – but males will receive a confirmed Y-DNA mid-level haplogroup now, with midrange mtDNA haplogroups coming in the future for Family Finder testers. This is a feature that other vendors don’t target or provide at the same level.

I’m very hopeful that these foundation haplogroups will serve as an “appetizer” and will encourage more people to take both the Big Y-700 (males only) and the mtFull test (for everyone), as applicable, to receive those types of specific matches and learn more about their ancestors.

Speaking of the future, how do you future-proof your DNA?

Future-Proofing Your DNA

If you’ve already tested, should you purchase a new Family Finder test for yourself now?

No.

I know you didn’t expect that answer, but here’s why.

Everyone who purchases a Family Finder test, which uses NGS technology, receives the same matching and features as the legacy test.

FamilyTreeDNA doesn’t yet know the benefits and discoveries that will eventually be available, and they won’t know until after they have results of customers to work with.

Having said that, you will definitely want to future-proof your DNA and the results of anyone whose results you count on to help sort through your own.

So, let’s make a plan!

Assuring Future Compatibility

Plan 1 – Test Your Relatives:

Your closest relatives are your best assets. They help you determine how you match others, who you share ancestors with, and the identities of those ancestors. You absolutely need to test the following relatives if they are available:

  • Parents
  • Grandparents
  • Siblings, both full and half – test all of them if both parents aren’t available for testing.
  • If your sibling(s) are deceased or not available, their children carry half of their DNA, but not the same half, so test everyone available. You don’t need to test your siblings’ children if that sibling is available to test.
  • Aunts and uncles, or their descendants if they are not available
  • Great-aunts and uncles, or their descendants if they are not available
  • First and second cousins

Plan 2 – Person Has Never Tested:

Plan 3 – Already Tested at FamilyTreeDNA:

  • If they or you have already taken a Family Finder test at FamilyTreeDNA, an upgrade offer will be forthcoming soon. You don’t need to do anything now.
  • If the person is critical for your research, elderly, or there is some other reason for concern, the tester or kit manager can contact FamilyTreeDNA customer support now and inquire whether or not there is an unopened vial of DNA.
  • To assure that there is enough DNA left for the future, or that the DNA sample is not too old, you can request that a “C/D vial” set be sent to you/them just in case. Be sure the current address is valid.
  • This is also a good time to be sure that your/their Beneficiary Information and/or Kit Manager information is current as well. You’ll find both under Account Settings beside the name in the upper right corner of the page.

Plan 4 – Uploaded From Another Vendor:

  • If you uploaded your DNA file to FamilyTreeDNA from another vendor instead of testing there, hold your horses for now. You’ll clearly have to swab, because when you do an upload, only the data file is uploaded. No DNA is actually transferred or uploaded. I’m not sure what process will be put in place for transfer/uploaded testers, but FamilyTreeDNA will let you know when something is available.

What NOT to Do

I contacted FamilyTreeDNA and this is what they ask customers NOT to do:

  1. Don’t request that your current test be deleted so you can order a new one. This removes everything – linkages, trees, family matching, permissions, project membership, other tests, and notes. Not just for you, but for your matches who have done work on their match with you as well.
  2. Don’t order a second kit, which causes “twins” in the system. I don’t have inside knowledge, but I’ll bet there will be special upgrade pricing if you just wait a bit!

I’m Excited

I don’t know what the future holds, but I’m hoping for:

  • More granular ethnicity (we always want that, right?)
  • More confident matching
  • Improved relationship identification
  • Additional tools to identify descendants of specific ancestors
  • Tools to identify missing ancestors

As a contract member of the R&D team, I’ll let you know when my NGS results are back and how they compare to my matches on the current chip. You know I’m building that spreadsheet already!!

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RootsTech 2026 – The Wind Beneath Our Wings

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I started writing this article on Sunday evening, the day after RootsTech ended, and I’m basking in the afterglow. Also, my back and feet may never forgive me.

As a tongue-in-cheek comment, I think someone coined the word “exhausterwhelmulated” and defined it as being exhausted, overwhelmed, and overstimulated all at once. Yep, that’s me.

However, I need to add another couple of words to this – gratitude and joy.

Gratitude and Joy

I’m going to try to express this without sounding too sappy.

Do you recall the joy you used to feel when you spotted a relative you loved dearly but didn’t get to see often? Think of the unbridled joy as you piled out of your parents’ car and spotted your grandmother coming out of the door because she saw the car pull up. You ran as fast as your little legs could carry you directly into her arms, and got hugged so tightly it nearly squeezed the breath out of you.

I don’t know what the word for that would be, but it’s similar to how RootsTech feels.

Let me explain. Continue reading →

RootsTech 2026 Schedule: Online and In-Person Sessions Plus Book Signing – You’re Invited!

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RootsTech is right around the corner.

Like always, there’s so much energy swirling around RootsTech, whether you’re attending in person or virtually. I can hardly wait!

If you’re attending RootsTech in Salt Lake City, I hope we have the opportunity to connect. Please be sure to say hello.

I have a few DNAeXplain badge ribbons left, so be sure to ask me for one. When they are gone, they’re gone and will soon become a RootsTech collector’s item!.

Register

Be sure to register for the free online conference, here, if you aren’t attending in Salt Lake City. All of the in-person only sessions have a syllabus available, and many speakers include their slides. So be sure to check everything out, even sessions that are in-person only.

Join Relatives at RootsTech

Oh, and while you’re at it, sign up for Relatives at RootsTech, here, and see which of your cousins are attending either virtually or in-person. I’ve written several articles about how I utilize Relatives at RootsTech, here.

Roberta’s Schedule

Here’s my presentation, appearance and book-signing schedule.

“Monday’s with Myrt”, hosted by Pat Richley-Erickson (Myrt), a RootsTech tradition, is always broadcast from the FamilySearch Library in SLC on the Monday before RootsTech. Myrt live-streams interviews and discussions with lots of people you know. 

I’ll be discussing something completely out of the ordinary for me – with surprise visuals! Here’s the link. Come join us for the fun!

Thursday is a VERY Busy Day With Four Sessions

This recorded session is available for everyone at this link, beginning when RootsTech opens and throughout the conference. This session is sponsored by FamilyTreeDNA, which makes sense because they are the only vendor that offers X-DNA matching.

Show Floor

Two of my events will take place in booths on the show floor. The book-signing in in the GenealogyBank booth, at far right, and the MyHeritage session is right inside the main entrance where you can’t miss it!

You can purchase my books during the signing while supplies last. If you’ve previously purchased a book and would like it signed, you can bring the book, of course, or I will have some bookplates with me that I will gladly sign for you.

  • Thursday, March 5 – 2 PM Mountain Time (SLC), MyHeritage booth #900, Everything I Love About MyHeritage

Ok, so this session might not include quite EVERYTHING I love about MyHeritage. I’m going to begin in an unexpected place with an underutilized tool, Cousin Finder, and work my way through using the rest of the MyHeritage DNA (and supporting) tools successfully. Two fun case studies in my own family with an unexpected twist that every genealogist dreams about. MyHeritage makes it easy to jump the pond!

Mitochondrial DNA to Z is in-person only, so not recorded or livestreamed. Here’s the link which includes my slides. (You’re welcome!).

Friday Holds Two Great Sessions – Including One That’s Livestreamed

Y-DNA to Z is in-person only, so not recorded or livestreamed. Here’s the link which includes my slides. (You’re welcome!).

Mapping Maternal Connections, sponsored by FamilyTreeDNA, is available both in person and online. As a contract member of the R&D team, and as a genetic genealogist, I’m really excited to share the latest updates with you, as well as how I’m using the new MitoTree, matching and Discover to solve long-standing mysteries. Here’s the link, which includes a syllabus.

Just so you know, recordings of online sessions will be available after the event, so if you miss it, come back to view later.

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2025 Genetic Genealogy Retrospective: Wow – What a Year!

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2025 has been quite a year in genetic genealogy. Genetic genealogy, per se, really isn’t a separate “thing” anymore. DNA testing is now an integral part of genealogy, with the potential to answer questions that nothing else can!

The 76 articles I wrote in 2025 fall into multiple categories and focus on different topics based on what was happening in the industry.

From my perspective, here are the most notable announcements and trends in genetic genealogy, and genealogy more broadly.

#1 for 2025 – Mitochondrial DNA: The Million Mito Project Released the New Mitotree, Updates, and mtDNA Discover

The biggest genealogy news items this year, both industry-wide and genealogy-changing are definitely the release of the new Mitotree, plus two tree updates. But that’s not all.

In addition, full sequence mitochondrial DNA testers received new Mitotree haplogroups, if appropriate, and everyone received a haplotype – a new feature. Along with Mitotree, FamilyTreeDNA introduced mtDNA Discover which provides 13 individual reports based on your haplogroup and matches.

It’s no wonder that mitochondrial DNA articles led the pack with the most views based on the eleven articles about that topic. If you haven’t yet tested your mitochondrial DNA at FamilyTreeDNA, there’s no better time! You never know what you’re going to discover and the more testers, the more matches for everyone.

You don’t know what you don’t know, and you’ll never know if you don’t test. Remember, mitochondrial DNA is for both males and females and tests your mother’s direct matrilineal line (mother to mother to mother, etc.) – reaching beyond known surnames.  Click here to order or upgrade.

#2 – MyHeritage Low Pass Whole Genome Sequence Test Charges into the Future

Another big hitter is the new MyHeritage low-pass whole genome test (WGS) test. It’s new and innovative, but we haven’t seen comparative results yet.

My results from the new low-pass whole genome test just came back, and I haven’t had the opportunity to review them yet, as compared to the earlier tests. That said, I do have roughly the same number of matches, but I need to determine if they are the same matches, and how well they track. I’ll be working on that review soon.

The new whole genome test may be more about future proofing and preparedness than additional current benefit – but we will see. I definately wanted to take the whole genome test so I can receive and benefit from whatever new is coming down the pike.

MyHeritage allows you to maintain multiple DNA tests on your account, so the new whole genome won’t “replace” your older or uploaded test. That way, you can easily compare the results of the whole genome against any DNA test that you curently have at MyHeritage.

Click here to order the new test.

#3 – 23andMe Experiences Problems

On a less positive note, but still quite newsworthy is the bankruptcy of 23andMe and subsequent repurchase of 23andMe by the original founder after setting up a new nonprofit. I have real mixed feelings about this topic. However, 23andMe was really never about genealogy, and now, matching segment information is no longer available. Those searching for unknown parents or family may want to test there if they are unsuccessful elsewhere.

Best Genealogy Tool

The FamilySearch full text search continues to have a HUGE impact for genealogists. This tool is not one-and-done, but provides increasing amounts of rich information as more records are added to the “fully scanned” collection. If you haven’t tried it, please do. It’s a game-changer and continues to improve.

A Cautionary Word About AI – Artificial Intelligence

AI is such a hot topic right now that I feel it needs to be included.

The FamilySearch full text search uses a form of AI. However, you’ll quickly notice that it can’t read everything, gets words and names wrong, and if you actually need to fully depend on it for accuracy, you cannot. (That said, it’s still an amazing tool, and I’m not picking on FamilySearch.)

Aside from FamilySearch, AI in its current form is both wonderful and terrible. I’ll be writing about AI in the new year, but for now, don’t ever rely on AI for anything that you can’t verity. It’s your assistant, not an expert, no matter how insistent it is. Never trust and always verify.

This is ESPECIALLY TRUE WHEN RELATED TO GENETICS and genetic related topics. I can’t even begin to tell you how very wrong it has been, and how much people fall in love with inaccurate results. No, just no – at least for now.

You need to know your AI tool, your skill set, your understanding of AI broadly, the tool’s limitations, and yours, and that’s all before verifying the actual AI results. If you want to educate yourself, and everyone should, treat yourself to anything, anyplace by either Mark Thompson or Steve Little, the dynamic AI duo. They offer YouTube videos and classes in a wide variety of places – but keep in mind that AI tools and technology literally change every few weeks.

AI is, indeed, a specialty all unto itself, much like genetic genealogy. And right now, it’s not soup yet, but it is cooking.

Tried and True Genetic Genealogy Staples – DNAPrint and Genetic Affairs

I haven’t written about either one this year, but I use both DNAPainter and Genetic Affairs regularly.

I consistently paint segments from matches at both MyHeritage, FamilyTreeDNA, and GEDmatch that are newly identified to an ancestor or ancestral couple at DNAPainter.

Unfortunately, neither Ancestry nor 23andMe provide matching cM location information for your matches (chromosome browser), but you may find some people who have tested at those companies at both FamilyTreeDNA and GEDmatch if they have uploaded to either of those vendors. Both vendors provide segment information and a Chromosome Browser, enabling you to paint that information to DNAPainter when you can identify your common ancestor.

MyHeritage also provides a Chromosome Browser, but unfortunately, no longer accepts uploads from any other vendor. You can paint segments from MyHeritage, but no longer upload DNA files to MyHeritage.

Thanks to DNAPainter, I have 90% of my segments identified to specific ancestors – which is actually rather remarkable given that my mother’s grandfather was a Dutch immigrant, and her great-grandparents on her other side were German immigrants, meaning we don’t have many matches on either of those lines.

Genetic Affairs continues to develop new, advanced clustering tools, one of which I’ll be reviewing soon.

Major Vendor Releases

Aside from what’s listed above, most of the major vendors released new features.

MyHeritage released a VERY COOL new tool called Cousin Finder that finds your relatives in the MyHeritage database, whether they match you on a DNA test, or not. They may not have even taken a DNA test. Cousin Finder identifies your common ancestor and shows your relationships. It’s a wonderful way to initiate communications, discuss your common ancestors, and ask about DNA testing.

Of my 378 Cousin Finder matches, only 23 (about 6%) are on my DNA match list, so that leaves 355 people to message, several of whom represent Y-DNA and mtDNA lines I don’t have. You can bet I’ll be offering testing scholarships.

Additionally, MyHeritage released a new ethnicity version.

FamilyTreeDNA, in addition to the new Mitotree, Discover, and associated features, released a new match matrix so you can see if and how selected matches are related to each other in a grid format. In other words, you can create your own cluster.

A new built-in “Share” feature blurs private information to make sharing easier both on the website and in Discover.

Discover improvements include thousands of new Y-DNA and mtDNA tree branches, plus thousands of new Ancient DNA samples. Discover is evergreen, so once you’ve taken that Big Y-700 test or the mitochondrial DNA test, your learning never stops as more content is added.

Tree integration with WikiTree is super-easy and means you don’t have to choose between trees. You can choose to retain your archived tree at FamilyTreeDNA, or move your tree to MyHeritage, PLUS link yourself to your family at WikiTree.

Ancestry released match clustering and a new beta pedigree view of ThruLines, but that’s back in the shop for more work. I’d expect to see it rereleased in 2026.

Conferences

RootsTech is the granddaddy of genealogy conferences, and it’s always fun to attend and write about the experience. Many vendors release new tools or products during the conference.

The ECGGC (East Coast Genetic Genealogy Conference), held in the fall, is the only conference that focuses entirely on genetic genealogy, new tools, how to use existing tools, and more. The 2025 conference was virtual and provided a great deal of focused content. Attendees particularly appreciate the deep dive in a particular topic presented in DNA Academy.

I’ll be at RootsTech in 2026, will write about that soon, and hope to see you there.

Concepts, Techniques and Plain Old Genealogy

In the past, my Concepts series and genealogy “how to” articles have been very popular, so, in 2025, I penned a half-dozen articles focusing on frequently asked questions about relationships and DNA.

For example, how does one go about finding DNA testing candidates? The number of options may surprise you and includes both Cousin Finder and Relatives at RootsTech.

By testing ONE PERSON for either Y-DNA or mitochondrial DNA that represents an ancestor, you actually receive information about that entire lineage of ancestors. So, on my Estes line, by locating an Estes male from my line to test, I received relevant information for every Estes male in my line, back to and beyond the progenitor.

Eventually, we hit a brick wall in every line, and those tools are the perfect way to break through those brick walls.

Other articles discuss things like how to use Discover’s Ancient Connections, and the difference between half and full relationships, both in your tree and genetically. Plus, what does a cousin “once removed” mean anyway? And why do I care?

Another question I receive is how far back, based on the shared amount of DNA, should I look in my matches’ trees for our common ancestor? In other words, how many generations back should I click? That article was fun and produced some unexpected results.

Memorial Articles

Because we are part of a community, I write memorial articles when one of our friends passes on. This year, sadly, Schelly Talalay Dardashti, well-known Jewish genealogist, and another very close friend joined the ancestors, so I’ve recognized the best in both of their lives which constitutes their legacy.

Be the Storyteller

Last, but not least, I wrote about my ancestors in the “52 Ancestors” series, which launched several years ago with Amy Johnson Crow’s challenge to write about one ancestor per week. She hosts this every year, and you can join (free) now.

I’m now on ancestor #467, so yes, it’s addictive, but it’s also AMAZING how many wonderful cousins I’ve met who have information that I did not. Not only that, but after publishing about an ancestor, I’ve discovered that I’m related to people I’ve known for years. We were SOOOooo excited!

I’ve been writing about the lives of my ancestors for several years now, and the articles include attempts to identify Y-DNA and mtDNA testers for each ancestor, where appropriate. There’s so much to learn that can’t be revealed any other way.

Plus, people seem to like the “mystery” and “short story” aspect, and I salt each story with the history of the region and relevant historical events of the timeframe. You might find your ancestors here too, or other helpful information.

Find a way to share about your ancestors!

Do You Have Suggestions for 2026 Topics?

Do you have suggestions or requests for article topics in 2026? If so, please comment on this article and let me know.

Check Out the 2025 List

Here’s the list of the 2025 articles. Did you miss something fun? Enjoy!

  Title Category Date Link
1 Welcome to 2025 – Opportunities and New Genetic Genealogy Articles Welcome, general 1-2-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/01/02/welcome-to-2025-opportunities-and-new-genetic-genealogy-articles/
2 Anne Doucet (1713-1791), Oceans, Rivers, and Perseverance – 52 Ancestors #438 52 Ancestors 1-4-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/01/04/anne-doucet-1713-1791-oceans-rivers-and-perseverance-52-ancestors-438/
3 Register for RootsTech 2025 Now RootsTech 1-16-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/01/16/register-for-rootstech-2025-now/
4 What IS the McNeil Family History, by George Franklin McNeil – 52 Ancestors #439 52 Ancestors 1-19-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/01/20/what-is-the-mcneil-family-history-by-george-franklin-mcneil-52-ancestors-439/
5 Jean Garceau dit Tranchemontagne (c1785-1711), Soldier from Saint Marseault – 52 Ancestors #440 52 Ancestors 1-29-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/01/29/jean-garceau-dit-tranchemontagne-c1785-1711-soldier-from-saint-marseault-52-ancestors-440/
6 Memories Resurface When the Old Family Home Gets a Facelift Genealogy 2-3-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/02/03/memories-resurface-when-the-old-family-home-gets-a-facelift/
7 MyHeritage Introduces Ethnicity v2.5 MyHeritage 2-6-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/02/06/myheritage-introduces-ethnicity-v2-5/
8 Relatives at RootsTech Reveals Cousins and Provides DNA Candidates RootsTech, techniques 2-8-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/02/08/relatives-at-rootstech-reveals-cousins-and-provides-dna-candidates/
9 FamilyTreeDNA’s New Matrix Shows How Your Matches Are Related to Each Other FamilyTreeDNA 2-12-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/02/12/familytreednas-new-matrix-shows-how-your-matches-are-related-to-each-other/
10 René Doucet (c1680-c1731), Lifetime of Incessant Upheaval – 52 Ancestors #441 52 Ancestors 2-15-2024 https://dna-explained.com/2025/02/16/rene-doucet-c1680-c1731-lifetime-of-incessant-upheaval-52-ancestors-441/
11 Lineages Versus Ancestors – How to Find and Leverage Yours Techniques 2-23-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/02/23/lineages-versus-ancestors-how-to-find-and-leverage-yours/
12 Mitotree is Born Mitochondrial DNA 2-25-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/02/25/mitotree-is-born/
13 RootsTech 2025 – The Year of Discover and the New Mitotree RootsTech, Mitochondrial DNA 3-14-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/03/15/rootstech-2025-the-year-of-discover-and-the-new-mitotree/
14 Pierre Doucet (c1621-1713), Walking History Book Lived to Nearly 100 – 52 Ancestors #442 3-16-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/03/16/pierre-doucet-c1621-1713-walking-history-book-lived-to-nearly-!100-52-ancestors-442/
15 Welcome to the New FamilyTreeDNA mtDNA Group Mitochondrial DNA 3-17-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/03/17/welcome-to-the-new-familytreedna-mtdna-group/
16 23andMe Files for Bankruptcy – What You Need to Know! 23andMe 3-24-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/03/25/23andme-files-for-bankruptcy-what-you-need-to-know/
17 New “Share” Features at FamilyTreeDNA Blur Match Information and Make Sharing Easy FamilyTreeDNA 4-1-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/04/01/new-share-features-at-familytreedna-blur-match-information-and-make-sharing-easy/
18 The Chauvet Cave: Trip Back in Time with Prehistoric European Humans – Are We Related? History, DNA 4-6-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/04/06/the-chauvet-cave-trip-back-in-time-with-prehistoric-european-humans-are-we-related/
19 DNA for Native American Genealogy Webinar & Companion Book Native American 4-8-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/04/08/dna-for-native-american-genealogy-webinar-companion-book/
20 Marie Levron (c1686-1727), Tragedy from Cradle to Grave – 52 Ancestors #443 52 Ancestors 4-14-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/04/14/marie-levron-c1686-1727-tragedy-from-cradle-to-grave-52-ancestors-443/
21 Mitochondrial DNA: What is a Haplotype Cluster and How Do I Find and Use Mine Mitochondrial DNA 4-14-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/04/14/mitochondrial-dna-what-is-a-haplotype-cluster-and-how-do-i-find-and-use-mine/
22 New Mitotree Haplogroups and How to Utilize Them for Genealogy Mitochondrial DNA 4-23-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/04/23/new-mitotree-haplogroups-and-how-to-utilize-them-for-genealogy/
23 Sir Francois Levron dit Nantois(c1651-1714), and Acadia’s Pirate – 52 Ancestors #444 52 Ancestors 4-26-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/04/27/sir-francois-levron-dit-nantois-c1651-1714-and-acadias-pirate-52-ancestors-444/
24 Catherine Savoie (c1661-c1722/25), Whispered Threads Weave a Tapestry of Life – 52 Ancestors #445 52 Ancestors 5-4-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/05/04/catherine-savoie-c1661-c1722-5-whispered-threads-weave-a-tapestry-of-life-52-ancestors-445/
25 Discover’s Ancient Connections – How Are You Related? Discover, Ancient DNA 5-8-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/05/08/discovers-ancient-connections-how-are-you-related/
26 Mother’s Day and Legacies 52 Ancestors, Genealogy 5-10-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/05/11/mothers-day-and-legacies/
27 The Mystery of the Blue Fugates and Smiths: A Study in Blue Genes and Pedigree Collapse Genetics, Genealogy 5-18-1015 https://dna-explained.com/2025/05/19/the-mystery-of-the-blue-fugates-and-smiths-a-study-in-blue-genes-and-pedigree-collapse/
28 Regeneron Wins Bid for Bankrupt 23andMe – Wedding Planned 23andMe 5-19-2023 https://dna-explained.com/2025/05/19/regeneron-wins-bid-for-bankrupt-23andme-wedding-planned/
29 Francois Savoie’s Homestead Rediscovered – 52 Ancestors #446 52 Ancestors 5-24-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/05/24/francois-savoies-homestead-rediscovered-52-ancestors-446/
30 Memorial Day – Some Gave All Memorial 5-25-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/05/25/memorial-day-some-gave-all/
31 Mitotree Webinar – What It Is, How We Did It, and What Mitotree Means to You Mitochondrial DNA 6-4-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/06/04/mitotree-webinar-what-it-is-how-we-did-it-and-what-mitotree-means-to-you/
32 Catherine LeJeune (c1633-1671/1686), Meet Your Grandchildren – 52 Ancestors #447 52 Ancestors 6-7-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/06/07/catherine-lejeune-c1633-1671-1686-meet-your-grandchildren-52-ancestors-447/
33 Mitotree Q&A for Everyone Mitochondrial DNA 6-11-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/06/11/mitotree-qa-for-everyone/
34 Father’s Day: Bravery and Love 52 Ancestors, Genealogy 6-14-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/06/14/fathers-day-bravery-and-love/
35 Francoise Bourgeois (c1659-1693/1697), High Drama in Beaubassin and Terror at Port Royal – 52 Ancestors #448 52 Ancestors 6-16-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/06/16/francoise-bourgeois-c1659-1693-97-high-drama-in-beaubassin-and-terror-at-port-royal-52-ancestors-448/
36 Requesting Suggestions for RootsTech 2026 Topics RootsTech 6-18-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/06/18/requesting-suggestions-for-rootstech-2026-topics/
37 FamilyTreeDNA and WikiTree Collaboration – In Two Easy Steps!! FamilyTreeDNA, WikiTree 6-25-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/06/25/familytreedna-and-wikitree-collaboration-in-two-easy-steps/
38 Jacques Bourgeois (c1620-c1700), Surgeon of Port Royal – 52 Ancestors #449 52 Ancestors 7-1-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/07/01/jacques-bourgeois-c1620-c1700-surgeon-of-port-royal-52-ancestors-449/
39 TTAM, a Nonprofit Formed by 23andMe’s Founder Now Plans to Buy 23andMe 23andMe 7-1-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/07/01/ttam-a-nonprofit-formed-by-23andmes-founder-now-plans-to-buy-23andme/
40 Jacques Bourgeois: Complex Acadian, Founder of Beaubassin – 52 Ancestors #450 52 Ancestors 7-6-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/07/06/jacques-bourgeois-complex-acadian-founder-of-beaubassin-52-ancestors-450/
41 How to Use Ancestry’s New Match Clusters and What They Mean Ancestry 7-10-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/07/10/how-to-use-ancestrys-new-match-clusters-and-what-they-mean/
42 Walk with Your Ancestors: Peace, Light and Healing in an Abandoned Medieval Village History 7-21-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/07/21/walk-with-your-ancestors-peace-light-and-healing-in-an-abandoned-medieval-village/
43 Jeanne Trahan (c1629-c1699), Life in Chinon, La Heve, Port Royal, and Beaubassin – 52 Ancestors #451 52 Ancestors 8-2-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/07/28/jeanne-trahan-c1629-c1699-life-in-chinon-la-heve-port-royal-and-beaubassin-52-ancestors-451/
44 Wherefore Art Thou, Oh Ancestor – New Generation Tree Chart Suggests Where to Look in Your Matches’ Trees Techniques, Genetics, Genealogy 8-2-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/08/02/wherefore-art-thou-oh-ancestor-new-generation-tree-chart-suggests-where-to-look-in-your-matches-trees/
45 Guillaume Trahan (c1601-1625), More Than Meets the Eye – 52 Ancestors #452 52 Ancestors 8-13-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/08/13/guillaume-trahan-c1601-c1684-more-than-meets-the-eye-52-ancestor-452/ 
46 The East Coast Genetic Genealogy Conference – ECGGC – Register Now for the Best of the Best ECGGC Conference 8-14-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/08/14/the-east-coast-genetic-genealogy-conference-ecggc-register-now-for-the-best-of-the-best/
47 Schelly Talalay Dardashti – May Her Memory Be a Blessing Memorial 8-17-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/08/17/schelly-talalay-dardashti-may-her-memory-be-a-blessing/
48 Francoise Corbineau (c1609-c1665), Bride in Chinon, Founder of Acadia – 52 Ancestors #453 52 Ancestors 8-25-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/08/23/francoise-corbineau-c1609-c1665-bride-in-chinon-founder-of-acadia-52-ancestors-453/
49 Nicolas Trahan (c1570->1632), Life in the Heart of French Wine Country – 52 Ancestors #454 52 Ancestors 8-31-2015 https://dna-explained.com/2025/08/31/nicolas-trahan-c1570-1632-life-in-the-heart-of-french-wine-country-52-ancestors-454/
50 Mitochondrial DNA A-Z: A Step-by-Step Guide to Matches, Mitotree, and mtDNA Discover Mitochondrial DNA, Discover, Genealogy, Techniques 10-2-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/09/02/mitochondrial-dna-a-z-a-step-by-step-guide-to-matches-mitotree-and-mtdna-discover/
51 Renée Desloges (c1570-1627/1632), Fragments of Life in Montreuil-Bellay – 52 Ancestors #454 (this is actually 455) 52 Ancestors 9-6-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/09/06/renee-desloges-c1570-1627-1632-fragments-of-life-in-montreuil-bellay-52-ancestors-454/
52 Best Mitochondrial DNA Presentation EVER – You’re Invited to DNA Academy!! Mitochondrial DNA 9-9-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/09/09/best-mitochondrial-dna-presentation-ever-youre-invited-to-dna-academy/
53 Unfillable Shoes Memorial – Douglas Rhodenbaugh 9-14-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/09/14/unfillable-shoes/
54 Concepts: What Does a Cousin “Once Removed” Mean? Concepts, Genealogy 9-24-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/09/24/concepts-what-does-a-cousin-once-removed-mean/
55 Daniel Vannoy (1752-after 1820), “Lived in the Boundary of the Cherokee Indians” – Say What??? 52 Ancestors 9-29-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/09/29/daniel-vannoy-1752-after-1820-lived-in-the-boundary-of-the-cherokee-indians-say-what/
56 Daniel Vannoy and the Strange Case of the Two Sarahs – 52 Ancestors #457 52 Ancestors 10-5-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/10/06/daniel-vannoy-and-the-strange-case-of-the-two-sarahs-52-ancestors-457/
57 Cousin Finder – MyHeritage’s Innovative New Tool Finds Your Relatives MyHeritage 10-9-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/10/09/cousin-finder-myheritages-innovative-new-tool-finds-your-relatives/
58 Sarah Hickerson Vannoy (c1761 – after 1826), Threw More than Shade – 52 Ancestors #458 52 Ancestors https://dna-explained.com/2025/10/13/sarah-hickerson-vannoy-c1761-after-1826-threw-more-than-shade-52-ancestors-458/
59 MyHeritage Introduces a Low-Pass Whole Genome Autosomal DNA Test & Why It Matters MyHeritage 10-14-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/10/14/myheritage-introduces-a-low-pass-whole-genome-autosomal-dna-test-why-it-matters/
60 Henriette Pelletret (c1640 – before 1694), Life Death in the Shadow of the Fort – 52 Ancestors #459 52 Ancestors 10-21-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/10/21/henriette-pelletret-c1640-before-1694-life-and-death-in-the-shadow-of-the-fort-52-ancestor-459/
61 Cheat Sheet: Mitochondrial Matches, Haplotype Clusters, and Haplogroups Mitochondrial DNA 10-22-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/10/22/cheat-sheet-mitochondrial-matches-haplotype-clusters-and-haplogroups/
62 Simon Pelletret (1610-1642/1645): A Walk Through Port Royal – 52 Ancestors #460 52 Ancestors 10-27-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/10/27/simon-pelletret-c1610-1642-1645-a-walk-through-port-royal-52-ancestors-460/
63 Perrine Bourg (c1626-1693/1698): Phoenix Rising from the Ashes – 52 Ancestors #461 52 Ancestors 11-2-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/11/02/perrine-bourg-c1626-1693-1698-phoenix-rising-from-the-ashes-52-ancestors-461/
64 Concepts: What is a Half Relationships, Life Half First Cousins, Anyway? Concepts, Genealogy 11-4-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/11/04/concepts-what-is-a-half-relationship-like-half-first-cousins-anyway/
65 Marie Broussard (1686-after 1752), Life Across the River from Port Royal – 52 Ancestors #462 52 Ancestors 11-10-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/11/10/marie-broussard-1686-after-1752-life-across-the-river-from-port-royal-52-ancestors-462/
66 Francois Broussard (1653-1716), Intractable Acadian – 52 Ancestors #463 52 Ancestors 11-22-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/11/22/francois-broussard-1653-1716-intractable-acadian-52-ancestors-463/
67 Mitotree Sprouts 12,773 New Branches and Includes Ancient DNA Mitochondrial DNA 11-24-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/11/24/mitotree-sprouts-12773-new-branches-and-includes-ancient-dna/
68 Catherine Richard (c1663 – after 1714), Mother of Beausoleil, Acadian Freedom Fighters – 52 Ancestors #464 52 Ancestors 11-29-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/11/29/catherine-richard-c1663-after-1714-mother-of-beausoleil-acadian-freedom-fighters-52-ancestors-464/
69 Ancestry’s ThruLines Has a New Pedigree View Ancestry 12-2-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/12/03/ancestrys-thrulines-has-a-new-pedigree-view/
70 Ancestry Reverts ThruLines to the Original View Ancestry 12-6-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/12/06/ancestry-reverts-thrulines-to-the-original-view/
71 Michel Richard (c1630-1686/1689), Carefree Acadian – 52 Ancestors #465 52 Ancestors 12-7-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/12/08/michel-richard-dit-sansoucy-c1630-1686-1689-carefree-acadian-52-ancestors-465/ 
72 Mitochondrial DNA: How Do I Know if I’m a Candidate to Receive a New Haplogroup? Mitochondrial DNA 12-9-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/12/09/mitochondrial-dna-how-do-i-know-if-im-a-candidate-to-receive-a-new-haplogroup/
73 Heavens Ablaze: the 1833 Leonid Meteor Storm and Your Ancestors History, Genealogy 12-15-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/12/15/heavens-ablaze-the-1833-leonid-meteor-storm-and-your-ancestors/
74 Madelaine Blanchard (c1643 – 1678/1683), Gone Too Soon – 52 Ancestors #466 52 Ancestors 12-20-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/12/20/madelaine-blanchard-c1643-1678-1683-gone-too-soon-52-ancestors-466/
75 Soar Inspiration 12-24-2025 https://dna-explained.com/2025/12/24/soar/

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Mitochondrial DNA: How Do I Know if I’m a Candidate to Receive a New Haplogroup?

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New haplogroups, which are phylogenetic tree branches, are formed with periodic updates to the Mitotree. In the November 2025 Mitotree release, 12,773 new branches were formed, and an amazing 67,000+ people received a new haplogroup. Haplogroups are relevant for both genealogy and more distant information about your direct matrilineal ancestor and their origins.

Are You a Candidate to Receive a New Haplogroup?

Lots of people have asked how one might know if they are a candidate to receive a new haplogroup, or tree branch, or why they didn’t, so let’s talk about the three ways your haplogroup could potentially change.

To follow along, if you have taken the full sequence mitochondrial DNA test, sign in to your FamilyTreeDNA account and click on Discover on the mtDNA Results and Tools page.

After clicking on Discover, you’ll see the mtDNA Discover sidebar menu on the left. Click on Scientific Details

You Have Private Variants

The first reason you might be a candidate to receive a new haplogroup is that you have private variants. Private variants are mutations that have not already been used to form a haplogroup, hence, they are still private to you.

To see if you have private variants, click on Scientific Details on the sidebar, then on the Variants Tab.

Click any image to enlarge

You’ll see a list of haplogroups under the Placement column header. Your assigned haplogroup is noted by the red square, J1c2f in this instance.

At the top is an “F” number, which is your Haplotype. Haplotype numbers are randomly assigned, and everyone with exactly the same mitochondrial sequence will have the same haplotype number.

You can see your haplogroup and haplotype matches on your match list. If you match both, both blue circles will be checked.

In this example, you can see that beside the haplotype number, which I’ve blurred, in the Name column, it says “No private variants.” This means that all of this person’s mutations have been used to assign them to haplogroup J1c2f and the haplogroups upstream of J1c2f.

This tester cannot match anyone any more closely than the exact same haplogroup, J1c2f, and the exact same Haplotype number, which means they match exactly and have no private variants. This means there’s no material available to form a new haplogroup.

I’ve written about mitochondrial haplogroups, haplotypes and haplotype clusters, in two articles.

Let’s look at an example of someone who does have Private Variants.

This tester, who is a member of haplogroup C4c1h has one private variant, T13879g. When another tester in haplogroup C3c1h also has this variant, or mutation, they are candidates to form a new branch in the next Mitotree release.

Keep in mind that not every private variant will become a haplogroup, based on several scientific factors.

So, while our haplogroup J1c2f tester is NOT a candidate to form a new haplogroup branch due to no private variants, our C4c1h person with one high-quality private variant is.

However, private variants are only one way in which a new haplogroup might form. There are others.

The Tree Splits Upstream

Sometimes the tree splits upstream.

Looking further upstream, or back in time from haplogroup J1c2f, we see that two of the foundation haplogroups that formed J1c2f are defined by more than one mutation.

Haplogroup J1 was formed using both C462T and G3010A, bracketed in red.

Haplogroup J was formed using seven different mutations, beginning with C295T and continuing to the bottom of the screen capture, bracketed in purple.

As more people test, eventually a new tester may have C462T, but NOT G3010A, AND their downstream mutations are different too. In other words, we’re not looking at a reversal for 3010, but at a completely different haplogroup with a split at C462T as its defining mutation.

In this case, the new branch would receive the new haplogroup name, and the existing branch would remain the same. But what if this scenario happened far up the tree and changed our understanding of this portion of the tree?

In that case it’s still very unlikely that your haplogroup would change, based on existing naming structures. FamilyTreeDNA makes every effort to NOT rename existing haplogroups when these types of branching situations occur.

The Branch is Renamed

Sometimes the existing tree structure is clarified, prompting branch renaming.

Let’s look at an earlier structure of this portion of haplogroup J1c2f.

In the earlier version of the Mitotree, shown above, you can see that two mutations define haplogroup J1c2, two mutations define J1c, and there’s a haplogroup called J1c’g that is constructed using a reversal at location 152.

In the November 2025 release of the Mitotree, this exact same portion of the tree looks different. The tester is still haplogroup J1c2f, but the upstream structure has changed.

  • J1c2 is now defined by only one mutation, A188G.
  • A new haplogroup has been formed: J1c2+16519. Notice the Weight column at far right. This mutation’s confidence weighting is very low, so this haplogroup is a good candidate for refinement in future trees.

Now look at J1c where we see the same thing occurring.

  • J1c is now comprised of just T14798C.
  • A new haplogroup, J1c+185 has formed. It has a weight of 17, still in the red zone, but more confident than J1c2+16519.

Looking further down the original placement table, we see J1c’g, which is a collapsed haplogroup based on a double reversal at C152T!!. It’s gone in the most current version of the tree. You can see that haplogroup J1c’g only had a weight of 1, so it was a good candidate to be refined, eliminated, or assigned elsewhere in the tree.

None of these changes affect haplogroup J1c2f itself, meaning the tester’s assigned haplogroup. Unless they actually look at their haplogroup mutations, they won’t see any difference. This person was and still is assigned to J1c2f.

However, if someone was assigned to J1 or J1c2 before, they might have a new haplogroup name. If they were assigned to J1c’g, they definitely have a new haplogroup name.

These scenarios are repeated throughout the tree, and may be exactly why you receive a new haplogroup, even without having any private variants.

Older Versus Newer

Haplogroups that form as a result of your private variants tend to be newer, or closer in time, but not always. You never know when just the right person will test to split an upstream branch!

Regardless, all new haplogroups help refine the tree, and all refinements are important. Branches that form in more recent generations are often the most useful for genealogy.

However, that’s not always the case. “Newer” versus “older” is sometimes relative (pardon the pun.) Let’s say that you are trying to figure out which of two sisters, or cousins, born in the 1600s, you descend from.

You may desperately need an “older” haplogroup that will divide the branches of the ancestral tree.

Or maybe you want to know whether your ancestor came from Scotland or Germany, so you may need an older haplogroup yet.

Want to know if they were Celtic or from a different culture? An older haplogroup fills in cultural and genealogical blanks that no other type of testing can reach. Haplogroups pierce the veil of time.

OK, So What Should I Check?

Even if you don’t receive a new haplogroup when a new Mitotree version is released, you’re certainly not out of luck.

Some of your matches may have received a new haplogroup, further refining the genetic tree, causing them to cluster together. This should correlate with the genealogical tree.

For example, I’m desperate to identify the wife of my ancestor, who has been known affectionately for years as H2a1. She is now haplogroup H2a1ay1, but I still don’t know her name.

The haplogroup formation date range extends back to around 1820, which is slightly late, but certainly not far off either. The dates for the genetic Time Tree, and the genealogical tree may not align exactly, but the date ranges generally do. Mutations don’t occur on an exact schedule.

However, matches for the tester who represents H2a1 (now H2a1ay1) have been nicely narrowed down to two other full sequence testers. Both have this exact same haplogroup, and one of them also has the exact same haplotype. The balance of her matches are now in a more distant haplogroup.

Now I can focus on the two matches with the same haplogroup.

Even though the trees of these three testers don’t seem to intersect, some genealogical sleuthing tells me a lot.

The ancestor of one of the haplogroup matches was born in 1741, a Quaker, in Chester, Pennsylvania, and died in 1818.

The ancestor of the haplogroup plus haplotype match lived in the same Virginia County as my ancestor, and they were both Quakers, whose families attended the same church.

So we have:

  • Haplogroup match – Born a Quaker in 1741 in Chester, PA.
  • Haplogroup AND haplotype match – Lived in Frederick Co., VA in the 1780s and attended same Quaker church as the tester’s ancestor

These new haplogroups, both of the tester’s haplogroup matches, and others whose new haplogroup shows they are more distant, are critical to refining my search.

I’m so close to identifying H2a1ay1 and her parents that I can smell it!

Any self-respecting genealogist would end this article right here and get busy!

I’m outta here!!!

Don’t stop with checking your own haplogroup. Review any changes to people on your match list and view the Match Time Tree, even if you didn’t receive a new haplogroup.

While receiving a new haplogroup is exciting, sometimes refinements among people around you can be equally, if not more, important and informative.

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Ancestry’s ThruLines Has a New Pedigree View

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19

Update: Ancestry obsoleted this new feature on December 5, 2025.

Ancestry recently updated ThruLines and introduced a new pedigree view.

I’m not sure that everyone has the new view yet, so here’s what to expect.

If you do have the new feature, let’s take a look, because there’s new functionality you may not have discovered.

When I signed in and clicked on ThruLines on the DNA tab, the first thing I saw certainly looked different. Needless to say, I was surprised because I wasn’t expecting anything new.

Click on any image to enlarge

This doesn’t look anything like what we’re used to, but Ancestry provides navigation buttons.

One person mentioned that the new view was so small they couldn’t really see clearly, but by rolling your mouse button up or clicking on the little “+” button in the upper right-hand corner, it’s easy to enlarge.

That said, on this and especially on subsequent screens, I would very much like for there to be less white space at the top, or have a “full screen” option.

You can navigate up your tree by clicking on the little up arrows above the ancestors in the top row.

The Tile Display is Still There

But perhaps more importantly for people who prefer the previous display, it’s actually right there.

Click on the little tile button to switch from the pedigree to the traditional tile view.

It’s easy to toggle back and forth.

Take a look at the new ThruLines layout. If you don’t like it, select the tiled version

Why Do I Like the Pedigree View?

I like the pedigree view because it lets me easily see how people connect with each other. While I’m intimately familiar with the more recent generations, I don’t like the more distant ancestors all being smooshed together in the tile view.

In the pedigree view, I can see how many of my matches descend from each ancestor in the tree format.

Clicking on that number opens the dropdown showing the matches and how they descend from that ancestor.

In these expanded tree views, we really do need a full-screen option. It is challenging to see the entire sequence of descent.

My focus right now is on determining if anyone that I match carries the mitochondrial DNA of my paternal grandmother. On other ancestral lines, I have both the Y-DNA and mtDNA from generations back in time, but not my grandmother. I’m hoping to remedy that.

This layout makes it easy to see that there are many potential candidates for generations upstream. If I find the right person, descended from that ancestor through all females to the current generation, which can be male, I’ll be offering them a DNA testing scholarship for a mitochondrial DNA test at FamilyTreeDNA.

Suggestions for Improving the View

Perhaps Ancestry will provide the option of selecting a default view, so we can select our favorite – tile or pedigree – plus a full-screen option for pedigree view.

Another alternative would be for the pedigree view to be horizontal and extend left to right instead of top to bottom, the same as Ancestry’s traditional trees.

Truthfully, I really like the pedigree format and functionality of the new ThruLines pedigree view, but I greatly prefer the layout of this traditional tree. It’s much easier to see and is expandable without running off the top or bottom of the screen. Maybe Ancestry could combine the best features of both.

Update: A sharp-eyed reader caught that the “Evaluate” feature is now gone, which used to allow you to evaluate other people’s trees that suggested the ThruLines connection. This is really important, and I hope that Ancestry restores it. Genealogists must evaluate everything and weigh the evidence when determining if a connection is accurate.

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Mitotree Sprouts 12,773 NEW Branches and Includes Ancient DNA

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FamilyTreeDNA has released the brand-new Mitotree, version 2025.10.24!

Mitotree has sprouted 12,773 new branches, a 30% increase in size in just seven months!

Chart courtesy of FamilyTreeDNA, click to enlarge

The new Mitotree has a total of 53,856 branches utilizing 342,000 full sequence samples from multiple sources:

  • 267,000 from FamilyTreeDNA full sequence tests
  • 50,000 from GenBank and other third-party sequences
  • 5,000 from the 1000 Genomes Project samples
  • 2,000 from miscellaneous academic studies

Care was taken to curate studies and samples from rare and underrepresented populations.

When the Mitotree is updated, new branches aren’t just tacked onto the ends of branches like leaves. That’s because new samples may split existing branches far upstream of the tips of the branches, so the entire branch may have shifted or been divided into two.

Therefore, with each new Mitotree version, the entire tree is rerun, which means a new branching structure, and the possibility of a new or refined haplogroup for every customer.

Sample Evaluation

The samples tested at FamilyTreeDNA conform to stringent quality control measures, but quality control and alignment for samples originating in other facilities are unknown.

Samples from third-party academic sources are reviewed by the R&D team for potential issues before inclusion.

Ancient Samples

The November 2025 Mitotree now incorporates more than 10,000 ancient DNA samples from archaeological sites around the world.

These samples are displayed on the mtDNA Discover Time Tree, shown above, with brown lines and little trowels.

Additionally, you’ll find ancient samples displayed on the following Discover pages:

  • Your individual Match Time Tree with your mitochondrial DNA matches when you click through to Discover from your account at FamilyTreeDNA
  • Migration Map
  • Ancient Connections
  • Classic Tree

Mouse over the sample names to read about each one.

Ancient DNA (aDNA) samples are uniquely important, because they allow us to put a stake in the ground (pardon the pun) at a specific place and time when and where that individual lived.

Ancient samples also pose unique challenges due to their age and DNA degradation. The resulting sequence may be incomplete due to lower coverage. The sequence may also contain post-mortem damage artifacts caused by a process known as deamination. On the other hand, these artifacts can also be valuable in authenticating the ancient origin of the DNA, and that the sequence is not a result of contemporary contamination.

FamilyTreeDNA cannot resequence the ancient sample itself, so must rely on the results produced by the institution that processed the ancient DNA sample.

Fortunately, the FamilyTreeDNA R&D team has developed methodologies to compensate for these issues, identify which samples can be used to construct the tree, and which samples can be reliably placed on the tree. Only the highest-quality ancient samples can be fully included in the tree construction, meaning they are allowed to split and form new branches.

In this version, more than 2,000 ancient samples were utilized for the tree, which resulted in over 500 new branches that would otherwise not have formed. In future versions, more ancient samples will be evaluated and added.

There are now more ancient samples available for mitochondrial DNA than for the Y-DNA tree. Both males and females have mitochondrial DNA, but only males have a Y chromosome. There are more ancient samples in the queue to be added to the next Mitotree version.

Innovation

Mitochondrial DNA, by its very nature, includes challenges not present in either autosomal or Y-DNA.

Innovative tree-building methodologies have been devised and implemented, including new methods for handling complex scenarios where multiple variants conflict with each other. In some cases, mutations that exhibit unstable behavior in a certain part of the tree are ignored when analyzing that portion of the tree. This, and much more, will be detailed in a future white paper.

One size does not fit all, and the team has been very focused on identifying the best fit for a variety of scenarios. These methodologies and refinements have enabled the formation of more than 4,000 branches by using previously excluded private variants.

How the New Mitotree Affects You

Watch your email for a new haplogroup notification!

Further refinement of the Mitotree, either for you or your matches, can provide you with new genealogical clues.

A new haplogroup may regroup your matches to be more genealogically relevant, and your TMRCA (Time to Most Recent Common Ancestor) estimates may have been refined.

Everyone who received their mtDNA Full Sequence test result before October 24, 2025, but whose Mitotree haplogroup was still analyzing should receive their new haplogroup within the next few days.

Many customers who have already received their Mitotree haplogroup will also receive an updated haplogroup due to changes in the tree structure.

Customers who get a Mitotree haplogroup for the first time and customers who receive an updated Mitotree haplogroup should receive automatic email notifications.

The excitement isn’t restricted only to people with new haplogroups.

Everyone should check their haplogroup results on mtDNA Discover to see whether they match any of the newly included ancient DNA samples, if their haplogroup age has changed, or if their matches on the Match Time Tree have been regrouped.

You just never know what, or who, might be waiting for you!

Great Time to Upgrade

If you or a family member took one of the earlier, partial (HVRI or HVRII only) mitochondrial DNA tests, or you’ve received a haplogroup estimate from an autosomal test at another company, now, with the holiday sales, is the perfect time to upgrade an earlier test or order a new one.

A full sequence mitochondrial DNA test is required for your most refined haplogroup, your closest matches, including ancient DNA, and the Match Time Tree, at mtDNA Discover.

If you’re taken a mitochondrial DNA test, but are uncertain about which level, sign on to your FamilyTreeDNA account and check your dashboard.

If you’ve taken the full sequence test, both the Plus and Full squares will be pink. If the Full square is grey, click on it to upgrade.

You can’t benefit from all of these new advances without a full sequence test, and you’ll match other full sequence testers who share the same ancestor at some point in time.

Mitochondrial DNA has the potential, due to tracking the direct matrilineal line, to break through brick walls that no other test can touch!

Do you have a brick wall that needs to fall?

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Cheat Sheet: Mitochondrial Matches, Haplotype Clusters, and Haplogroups

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One of the questions I often receive about mitochondrial DNA matching at FamilyTreeDNA is which mutations are included, which are excluded, from what type of matching, and why.

There are three types of matching for full sequence (mtFull) testers.

  1. Match page matching
  2. Haplotype matching
  3. Haplogroup-only matching

Each match type is different and provides something unique and beneficial.

People who have not upgraded to the mtFull, full sequence test, meaning they have only taken the older HVR1 or HVR1+HVR2 level test, don’t have full haplogroups, because only about 1000 of the 16,569 locations were tested with the earlier partial tests. You can easily upgrade to receive your full sequence results.

Navigate Using Your Dashboard

Aftersigning in to your account, you access the following information from your dashboard:

  • Your matches
  • Information about your matches, as maps showing where their earliest known ancestor (EKA) lived
  • mtDNA Discover

Match Types and Discover

Click to enlarge any image

Two types of matches show on your matches page, and one type is displayed only on Discover.

Match types are:

  1. Matches on your mtDNA Matches page under Genetic Distance – which means you match with less than three mutations difference, shown as a, “1 step”, “2 step” or “3 step” mutation. Locations 309 and 315 are EXCLUDED from the mismatch calculation because they are very unreliable and mutate often.
  2. Haplotype matching and clusters – Your haplotype is your exact DNA sequence and is assigned an F number. If you match someone whose F number is checked (in blue), it means you are an exact match with them and everyone in the same Haplotype Cluster, INCLUDING locations 309 and 315. Exact haplotype matches always show on your Matches page. If you have any mismatch, including 309 and 315, you will NOT share the same haplotype. A haplotype match is indicated by a little check mark beside the F number of your match, which means you and anyone else with that same haplotype number form a haplotype cluster.
  3. Haplogroup-only matching – which means you don’t match on your Matches page, because you have more than three mutations difference, but you do match at the haplogroup level, which you can see on Discover.

Since people who form a haplotype cluster match exactly on all markers, INCLUDING 309 and 315, you cannot be a haplotype cluster match with someone you don’t match exactly under Genetic Distance on your Matches page. You will always share the same haplogroup, too.

Now let’s look at the variations you might encounter.

Genetic Distance = Exact Match, But Different Haplotype Cluster

You can match someone exactly under Genetic Distance on your matches page, since that calculation excludes locations 309 and 315, but have a different haplotype because you don’t match that person on either 309 or 315, or both.

In this example, the tester and their match don’t share a haplotype, so the box isn’t checked. If the box was checked, it would indicate that their haplotypes match exactly, including 309 and 315. The box isn’t checked, so they aren’t a member of the same haplotype cluster.

In some cases, locations 309 and 315 can be genealogically useful, and in others, they are not. It’s up to you to do the genealogical research work and make that determination.

A Match, But Different a Haplotype and Haplogroup

You may match someone in a different haplogroup with less than three mutations difference, meaning a Genetic Distance of three steps or less. Even though you are members of a different, but closely related haplogroup, they are still shown on your match list because you share less than three mutations difference.

You and your match may share an identifiable common ancestor if at least one of the haplogroups formed more recently in time.

Discounting locations 309 and 315, this match has a Genetic Distance of “1 step”, meaning that there is one mutation difference, and that mutation forms the new haplogroup of J1c2f3. Their legacy haplogroup, before Mitotree, was J1c2f, the same as mine.

You may think that a different haplogroup means a match far different in time, but that’s not necessarily true.

In this example, it’s easy to see that people who are members of three different haplogroups trace back to the same common ancestor a few generations earlier. So even though these testers have different haplogroups, it doesn’t necessarily mean that their common ancestors are far back in time. Don’t summarily dismiss different but closely related haplogroup matches.

The same goes for haplotypes and haplotype clusters, so don’t ignore matches with different haplotypes that may be very genealogically useful.

Haplogroup-Only Matches

You won’t see haplogroup-only matches on your Match list if you mismatch on more than three locations. You’ll only see them in mtDNA Discover.

While three mismatches probably indicates a match before the adoption of surnames, that’s not necessarily the case, especially if the tester(s) have a heteroplasmy. I wrote about heteroplasmies, here.

Haplogroup-only matches can still be quite useful because all haplogroup members share a common ancestor at a specific point in time. Every haplogroup member shares common ancestors between the haplogroup’s formation date and the present-day testers. The most recent common ancestor (MRCA) with any one person or group of people can be anytime between the haplogroup formation date and your own generation.

Remember that the haplogroup name, such as J1c2f or V216a2, was a real living person. We just don’t know her name, and in many cases, never will. She’s still contributing valuable information about our ancestors, though, and perhaps about traceable genealogy..

You CAN see haplogroup-only matches on Discover. If you are a member of a Haplotype Cluster, you’ll match everyone in that cluster. However, on your Matches page, you may not match everyone else that shares your haplogroup.

As you can see on the Time Tree, above, there are two people in haplogroup V216a2 that are not members of haplotype cluster F9712482.

How do you know if you match everyone in your haplogroup, or if there are some people in your haplogroup that you don’t match?

The easiest way is to compare the Time Tree, which shows everyone in your haplogroup, and nearby haplogroups, to your Match Time Tree, above, which displays only the people you match overlayed onto the Time Tree with their name and their earliest known ancestor, if they entered that information.

As you can see, this tester is a member of the haplotype cluster F9712482 and matches one other person who is a member of haplogroup V216a1. They don’t match the second V216a2 person shown on the Time Tree, but who is missing here on the Match Time Tree when compared to the Time Tree.

How might this information be useful? For starters, your haplogroup-only match may include a country location of interest. Suppose there are several people that you don’t match. Their combined location information may be very useful for you when determining the history of your ancestral haplogroup and where your ancestors may have come from.

In my case, in haplogroup J1c2f, my oldest known ancestor is found in the church records in Wirbenz, Germany, marrying in 1647, but nearly all of my matches, including haplogroup-only matches, are from Scandinavia – Norway and Sweden primarily, with a few scattered elsewhere, which was a HUGE surprise to me. I expected Germany, but that’s not the history of my ancestors prior to 1647.

History beyond written records is invaluable history – and only available to us through non-recombinant DNA, such as Y-DNA (for males only) and mitochondrial DNA for everyone. Both maintain their direct line back through history because neither are ever combined with the DNA of the other parent, so they are never divided like autosomal DNA during recombination.

Cheat Sheet

I’ve created this handy dandy cheat sheet as a memory aid to recall which kinds of mutations are included in what type of matching, and why.

Memory Aid

  • Haplotype Clusters are your closest match buddies – exactly – clustered together. However, genealogically, you might be equally as close to people with other haplotypes. Remember that mutations 309 and 315 are jokers and may throw a monkey-wrench into matching!
  • Matches on your matches page are “serious,” because they ignore those jokers. No 309 and 315 jokers allowed here.
  • Haplogroup-Only Matches can still provide important hints. You need to “Discover” them in mtDNA Discover

To See More

To step through your results using all of the mitochondrial DNA tools, including Discover reports, please refer to my article, Mitochondrial DNA A-Z: A Step-by-Step Guide to Matches, Mitotree and mtDNA Discover.

Thanks for coming to my TED talk😊

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Best Mitochondrial DNA Presentation EVER – You’re Invited to DNA Academy!!

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It’s extremely rare that companies make their scientists available for customer-facing presentations – anyplace – ever.

We have an extremely rare opportunity. Both Dr. Paul Maier and Dr. Miguel Vilar, MitoTeam members, are generously presenting on Saturday, September 13, at the DNA Academy held at the East Coast Genetic Genealogy Conference (ECGGC). The Academy takes a deep dive focused on genetic genealogy education.

Dr. Paul Maier, Senior Population Geneticist at FamilyTreeDNA, who I often refer to as the “father of Mitotree”, is presenting in the evening at DNA Academy, and if you can only see one presentation about mitochondrial DNA – this is the one. It’s impossible to hear Paul speak and not learn several things!

This isn’t just an invitation – but an invitation covered in chocolate and with an attached lottery ticket wrapped in gift wrap with a huge bow to entice you. I really, REALLY encourage you to attend! There’s still time to sign up for the virtual conference that streams live from September 12-14, here. Session recordings are also available after.

I just saw Paul’s presentation, and let me tell you, it’s the best mitochondrial DNA presentation I’ve ever seen. He knocked it clean out of the ballpark!

Paul’s a genealogist, just like us. That’s his “family tree wall” behind him.

Not only does Paul educate about mitochondrial DNA writ large, but about how mitochondrial DNA works for genealogy and most importantly, how he, along with the rest of the team, went about creating the new Mitotree to make genealogy even easier.

There’s a lot of Secret Sauce in the mix – and Paul explains a great deal about this.

So, if you’re wondering how the tree was created, what ingredients go into the pot, what doesn’t, and why – this presentation is absolutely for you! And no, it’s not “too sciency.” It’s understandable for everyone – which is one of Paul’s gifts.

Here are a few teasers:

  • Why do humans have mitochondrial DNA? No, it’s not for genealogy, no matter what we think.
  • Did you know mitochondrial DNA has STRs? Say what???
  • Do you think that mitochondrial DNA mutates very slowly? Nope – Paul will explain!
  • Do you know the relative size of mitochondria as compared to Y-DNA?
  • How about the effective mutation rate – considering the mutation rates of both?
  • How many new sequences will be included in the newest version of Mitotree to be released soon?
  • What is a “secondary status” mutation, and how does that affect the tree?
  • Why are some mutations excluded from the tree?
  • …but not excluded from matching or haplotype clusters? What are haplotype clusters anyway, and why do we have them?
  • Find out how Paul uses mitochondrial DNA and target testing!
  • What are the “GREAT EIGHT”?
  • How does Globetrekker calculate migration paths, and what does it have to do with toads?
  • What’s on the horizon? I guarantee, you won’t see this anyplace else! If you have a sharp eye – you’ll even pick up a sneak peek.

Disclosure – I haven’t seen Miguel’s presentation, so Paul may well have some competition, as Miguel’s work is always spectacular.

My primary presentation, “The New Mitotree: What It Is, How We Did It, & What It Means To You”, takes place earlier in the day, while the DNA Academy takes place on September 13, from 6-9 EST, after dinner. I’ll have something short to offer during the Academy focusing primarily on genealogy success stories, but Paul’s presentation is an absolute “must see.”

We will be taking questions too!

I’m incredibly grateful for the opportunity to learn from the best of the best. Thanks to Mags Gaulden who will be moderating the Academy, the fine folks at the ECGGC, Paul, Miguel and the rest of the Mitotree team for making this a reality!

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Share the Love!

You’re always welcome to forward articles or links to friends and share on social media.

If you haven’t already subscribed (it’s free,) you can receive an e-mail whenever I publish by clicking the “follow” button on the main blog page, here.

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I receive a small contribution when you click on some of the links to vendors in my articles. This does NOT increase your price but helps me keep the lights on and this informational blog free for everyone. Please click on the affiliate links in the articles or to the vendors below if you are purchasing products or DNA testing.

Thank you so much.

DNA Purchases and Free Uploads

Genealogy Products and Services

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